Antarctica has often been regarded as a pristine territory untouched by human impact, but regrettably, this is no longer accurate. Over the course of more than a century, people have been journeying to Antarctica, and in that relatively short period, the majority of its regions have been explored, leaving behind more than just footprints.
Human impacts on cold environments include:
The impact of human activities on cold environments encompasses various actions, such as exploiting certain Antarctic species for financial gain, killing and disrupting other species, contaminating the soil, discharging sewage into the ocean, and leaving waste, cairns, and trails even in the most isolated areas.
Changing perspectives
In recent times, perspectives have shifted, as we come to the realization that there are only a few unexplored places left on the planet, and they hold immense value for humanity. The unpolluted air, water, and ice of Antarctica have now become globally significant for scientific research in understanding how the Earth’s climate is changing, both naturally and due to human activities. However, tour operators are starting to capitalize on the enormous demand to experience the extraordinary wildlife of Antarctica. Ironically, both science and tourism can potentially damage the very features that attract them to this region.
The scale of environmental effects in Antarctica
Environmental impacts in Antarctica occur at various spatial scales.
At the largest scale, there are the effects of global phenomena such as global warming, ozone depletion, and global pollution caused by the use of technology in other parts of the world.
At a more localized scale, but with the potential to cause extensive regional impacts, are the effects of fishing and hunting. Currently, mining is prohibited under the Environmental Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty (also known as the Madrid Protocol).
At an even more localized level, there are the impacts of visitors, such as scientists or tourists, to the region.
The impact of worldwide modern activities are reflected in Antarctica
Antarctica serves as a reflection of the impact of worldwide industrial activities.
Global changes can have adverse effects on the Antarctic environment and its flora and fauna. For instance, significant global warming can contribute to the fragmentation of vast areas of ice shelves and result in the loss of habitats for creatures that depend on the ice shelves. Increasing UV radiation can cause alterations to phytoplankton communities, with impacts occurring throughout the food chain.
Furthermore, global changes can lead to changes in Antarctica that could have significant environmental consequences elsewhere on the planet. For example, alterations in the amount of water stored in Antarctic ice can contribute to global sea-level change
The Antarctic region serves as a critical and fragile indicator of global change. The polar ice cap contains a wealth of information that reflects past environments, dating back many thousands of years. This information provides a unique opportunity to investigate the natural climate cycles of the planet, against which the significance of recent changes can be assessed.
The ice sheets of Antarctica contain air bubbles that trap atmospheric gases from the past. By studying these air bubbles, scientists can determine the composition of the atmosphere at various times throughout history. This allows them to reconstruct past temperature and climate changes, which can be used to understand current and future climate change.
Furthermore, the ice sheets of Antarctica act as a natural archive, recording changes in the planet’s environment over thousands of years. By analyzing the layers of ice, scientists can study the composition of the atmosphere and the deposition of dust, chemicals, and pollutants over time. This information helps scientists to understand the impact of human activities on the environment, both locally and globally.
In conclusion, the Antarctic region is a vital resource for understanding global change and its impact on the planet. Its unique environment and the records it holds offer invaluable insights into the planet’s past, present, and future climate, and should be protected and preserved for generations to come.
Effects of hunting and fishing
The pursuit of whales and seals drew people to Antarctica in the early nineteenth century and led to significant declines in wildlife populations within just a few decades. Hunting for seals, in particular, had devastating effects, with the Antarctic fur seal on the brink of extinction in many areas by 1830. This resulted in a decline in the sealing industry, even though sealing continued on a smaller scale well into the late nineteenth century.
Hunting of Seals
In an effort to address the hunting of seals, the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (CCAS) was established. The CCAS was established due to concerns that the sealing industry could be reopened following some experimental research on the feasibility of sealing during the 1960s.
Although commercial sealing did not resume, the CCAS developed a framework for sealing that included allowable catch limits for crabeater, leopard, and Weddell seals, a zoning system with closed seasons, and complete protection for southern elephant seals, Ross seals, and certain species of fur seal.
It should be noted that under Australian law, Australians are not allowed to be granted permits for commercial sealing in the Antarctic Treaty area. This law reflects a growing global awareness of the importance of protecting wildlife populations and preserving fragile ecosystems, including those in Antarctica.
Whaling
The practice of whaling in the Southern Ocean became popular in the early 1900s, and its success was such that by 1910, it accounted for half of the world’s catch. The industry’s history is characterized by the repeated targeting of the most productive species, leading to the depletion of stocks to non-viable commercial levels, after which companies moved on to less preferred species. As catches declined, international efforts were made to regulate whaling, leading to the establishment of the International Whaling Commission (IWC) in 1949. However, for many years, the IWC was largely ineffective in its efforts to manage whales as a sustainable resource, and declining profits eventually drove many companies out of the whaling industry.
In the 1960s, the IWC became more effective as blue and humpback whales were granted full protection. In the 1970s, protection was extended to fin and sei whales, and in 1986, the IWC decided to suspend all commercial whaling. Since then, whaling has been limited to a few countries that harvest whales under the guise of “scientific whaling” provisions set by the IWC. Despite some indications that whale populations are starting to recover, these long-lived species with low reproductive rates are incapable of rebuilding their numbers in just a few years.
Fishing
Fishing is currently the primary large-scale commercial resource harvest in the Antarctic Treaty area since sealing has effectively ceased, and whaling has significantly declined. However, fishing has major negative impacts such as potential over-fishing, effects on predator populations, mortality of non-target species, and habitat destruction. Over-exploitation has been a characteristic of most major fisheries globally, and without proper enforcement of regulations established for Antarctic fisheries, the Southern Ocean will not be an exception.
The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) was established in 1982 as part of the Antarctic Treaty System to regulate exploitation rather than outright protection. Initially, CCAMLR relied on the principle that fishery management should include not only the target species but also dependent and associated species and their ecological relationships. Therefore, much research effort has been directed towards understanding the interactions between krill and their predators.
The krill fishery did not continue to grow after the establishment of the convention, partly due to the withdrawal of the Soviet fleet after the collapse of the Soviet Union and because the cost of fishing and the value of krill in the marketplace meant it was economically marginal. However, the economics of the fishery are changing, and there is current demand for krill as a food source for aquaculture and bait, leading to an increase in the catch from 100,000 tons in 1999 to over 210,000 tons in 2010.
Large-scale fishing did not develop until the late 1960s when the Soviet Union targeted marbled notothenioid and icefish around South Georgia. The fishery has not recovered from the early peak of 400,000 tons harvested in 1969-70 and the subsequent rapid decline. The Patagonian toothfish has recently been targeted at various locations in the subantarctic. However, the fishery has attracted unauthorized operators from several countries that are operating outside the regulatory structure. Illegal, unregulated, or unreported (IUU) fishing is a concern because it can undermine efforts to manage fish stocks sustainably.
Seabirds are taken incidentally by long-line fishing, and CCAMLR has introduced a Conservation Measure to reduce the incidence of seabird mortality during long-lining. The Australian Fisheries Management Authority limits the fishery around Heard and Macquarie Islands to trawling to minimize the effects on seabirds. The Australian Antarctic Division has recently established the Antarctic Marine Living Resources program to provide the scientific basis for environmentally sustainable management of Southern Ocean fisheries.
Tourists and explorers
With the exception of those involved in fishing, the majority of visitors to Antarctica are either tourists or part of national scientific projects. Despite their different reasons for being there, visitors to Antarctica often engage in similar activities and face similar potential environmental impacts, such as visiting scenic areas and wildlife habitats. However, there are some notable differences.
While tourists outnumber national project participants by almost three times, national projects involve a much greater number of individual days spent on the ground in Antarctica. This is because national projects have established permanent or semi-permanent stations, mainly in ice-free areas, staffed by long-term wintering and short-term summer workforce.
Most large-scale tourist activities in Antarctica are transport-based, with limited hours spent at selected locations. There is a growing trend towards more independent, yacht-based trips and adventure activities such as overnight camping, hiking, and scuba diving. However, it is unlikely that this will increase the number of individual days spent onshore to the point where tourism surpasses government activities in the near future.
Fixing past damage and exploitation
The main concerns of environmental management involve addressing past environmental damage and reducing current and future impacts. In the Australian Antarctic program, strategies are being developed for cleaning up and remediating abandoned work sites and waste disposal areas. During the early stages of Australia’s Antarctic program, waste management involved dumping in open tips and ocean icing, which entailed pushing waste onto the sea ice. The ocean-iced waste would then be carried out with the ice during summer breakup and dispersed among the marine environment. Under the Madrid Protocol, there is a commitment to clean up abandoned work sites and waste tips, while ensuring that the cleanup process does not cause greater adverse effects or lead to the removal of significant sites or landmarks. Australian researchers are currently working on developing cleanup and remediation techniques that minimize impacts. Methods for identifying and monitoring effects, especially in the nearby marine environment, are also being developed.
Environmental management
Environmental management in Antarctica involves a range of tools and strategies to reduce current and future impacts of activities. These include environmental monitoring, mandatory environmental impact assessments, a permitting system, and a system of protected areas. Environmental audits are conducted to evaluate activities, while the Madrid Protocol (and Australian legislation) includes a system of environmental impact assessment. This system, adopted by all nations operating in Antarctica, involves a preliminary assessment to determine the level of impact likely to occur and whether a more detailed assessment is necessary. A permit system has also been established to regulate and monitor specific activities, such as access to protected areas and sample collection. The Madrid Protocol established a system for area protection and management, which will be used to protect areas of exceptional environmental, scientific, historical, aesthetic, or wilderness value. This system replaces the previous designation of Specially Protected Areas and Sites of Special Scientific Interest by Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings.
Some environmental impact is unavoidable in Antarctica. This includes emissions to the atmosphere, disturbance to the physical environment such as tracks from walking and vehicles, and disturbance to wildlife by visitors and vehicles. Environmental research and management tools are used to minimize this disturbance. For example, research is being conducted on the potential for alternative energy sources to replace traditional fuels, the protected area system is used to ensure that vehicles are not used in particularly vulnerable landscapes, and information from animal behavior research is used as the basis for new guidelines to ensure that helicopters do not cause harm or disturbance to wildlife by flying too close.
Introduced species
While not certain, there is a possibility of serious impacts occurring due to our presence in Antarctica, particularly the risk of introducing species, including those that cause diseases. The introduction of non-native species has caused significant environmental problems on other continents, and has resulted in major changes in most sub-Antarctic islands. Although we cannot eliminate this risk, research is being conducted to develop strategies that can reduce the chances of introductions. Australia hosted the first international conference to study diseases in Antarctic wildlife, and has been requested to organize a group to devise practical measures for decreasing the risk of disease introduction and spread among the untamed wildlife of Antarctica.
Australian environmental activities
Australia’s Antarctic Program is committed to being a global leader in environmental management, with the goal of minimizing its impact on the environment. To achieve this, the Australian Antarctic Division (AAD) ensures that all personnel are aware of their ethical responsibility to care for the environment. The Code of Conduct, which all expeditions must agree to follow, includes a commitment to environmental management. Training of new employees includes an introduction to the AAD’s approach to environmental issues.
The AAD also has a station environmental council, which includes a station environmental officer and a station waste management officer, to assist the station head in environmental management. At its headquarters in Kingston, the Territories, Environment, and Treaties Section, along with the Operations Environment Officer, is responsible for planning activities carefully to avoid environmental harm and developing policies to minimize any unavoidable impacts.
The Human Impacts Research Program conducts research to ensure that environmental management decisions are based on the best available scientific data. The Antarctic Marine Living Resources Research Program provides information to manage the harvesting of species in the Southern Ocean.
Australia has played a significant role in promoting environmental protection within the Antarctic Treaty System since its inception. Australia was instrumental in establishing the Agreed Measures in 1964, and the decision by Australia and France not to sign the Minerals Convention and to push for a convention that agreed to comprehensive protection of the Antarctic environment led to the negotiation and signing of the Madrid Protocol.
Australia continues to work within the Antarctic Treaty System to secure environmental protection through contributions to the Committee for Environmental Protection. This committee was established to provide environmental advice to the Treaty Consultative meetings. Australian scientists and policy advisors participate in the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, and information arising from Australian research has been the basis for Conservation Measures adopted by the Commission.
Read more about the Distribution of Cold Environments
Frequently Asked Questions
What are some negative impacts of human activity on cold environments?
Activities like oil and gas extraction, pollution, and habitat destruction can disrupt fragile cold environments, leading to loss of biodiversity and habitat degradation.
How does climate change affect cold environments?
Climate change causes ice melting, permafrost thaw, and altered ecosystems, endangering species and indigenous communities dependent on these environments.
How does tourism impact cold environments like the Arctic?
Increased tourism can lead to pollution, habitat disturbance, and cultural disruption in cold environments, affecting both natural and human systems.
What is overfishing, and how does it impact cold marine environments?
Overfishing depletes fish populations and disrupts marine ecosystems, affecting food chains and potentially causing economic and ecological imbalances.
What measures can be taken to mitigate human impacts on cold environments?
Conservation efforts, sustainable resource management, and international agreements can help reduce negative human impacts and protect cold environments.
References
- Antarctica Surrounded by Threats. (n.d.). Retrieved from LiveScience: https://www.livescience.com/21557-antarctica-warming-threats.html
- Human Impacts on Antarctica and Threats to the Environment – Overview. (n.d.). Retrieved from Cool Antartica: https://www.coolantarctica.com/Antarctica%20fact%20file/science/human_impact_on_antarctica.php
- Human impacts on Antartica. (n.d.). Retrieved from Australian Antarctic Division: Leading Australia’s Antarctic Program: http://www.antarctica.gov.au/environment/human-impacts-in-antarctica